A) What is problem based
learning and how does it work?
There are many teaching strategies used in schools today. Although fairly new, these strategies are supported by various theories and are time tested. Among these strategies are peer tutoring, cooperative learning, graphic organizers and role- playing. These are all effective teaching strategies. The strategy that I will focus on in this paper is problem-based learning.
Problem-based learning is any learning environment in which the problem drives the learning. That is, before students learn some knowledge they are given a problem. The problem is posed so that the students discover that they need to discover some new knowledge before they can solve the problem. The problem is set in a complex, real life setting (McCombs). As the project moves forward students attain the skills that are relevant to the curriculum. These skills are reinforced by the fact that they are being honed in an actual arena, so memorization of these skills is reinforced.
Problem-based learning as it is generally known today had its origins in the health sciences where it was used as an approach to radically shift the medical curriculum from a collection of subjects representing individual discipline interests to an integrative program of study which engaged students in problem formulation and problem solving from their very first day (Ryerson). The first practitioners of problem-based learning were the innovative foundation faculty in medical schools at Case Western University in the United States (in the 1950’s) and McMaster University in Canada (in the late 1960’s) (Boud). The result of their work featuring organ-system problem based learning were examined by other North American schools and by the late 70’s had spread worldwide and was well received by those who felt that education consisted of more than lessons, lectures and tutorials no matter how well planned (Boud).
In many ways the notion of problem-based learning is not new. Before the advent of classrooms and curricula it was how learning took place. Problem based learning is an approach to structuring the curriculum that involves confronting students with problems from practice, which provide a stimulus for learning where as the traditional curriculum places too much emphasis on memorization (Vernon).
The approach is limitless and basically up to the discression of the teacher. Once the idea is chosen the format is also up to the instructor. Since problem-based learning falls outside of the scholastic environment and has its aims in the real world arena the implementation of the approach relies heavily on the savvy of the instructor. As long as the core goals of the curriculum are met the possibilities are limitless.
One example of problem-based
learning is Claudette Rasmussen’s eighth grade literature class at the Marie
Murphy School in Chicago. The goal of the project was to make the content of her
literature class more meaningful and integrative. A short story about
homelessness had been a part of her curriculum for many years. After an
interpretive discussion about the piece she posed the question, “How have
perceptions about the homeless been changing?” (McCombs).
The students explored their own and others perceptions about the homeless
using print resources, including factual articles about the conditions of
homelessness and firsthand accounts of homelessness in Chicago and the United
States and submitted a portfolio of collected works. The question “How are
perceptions of homelessness changing?” has many of the hallmarks of pbl. It
engages students in the investigation, however informal of a real-world problem
by gathering information, communicating ideas and findings, refining
perceptions, and creating artifacts. The literature class, in effect, became the
site of an informal investigation of the perceptions of the homelessness
(McCombs).
The approach in the project was to read, analyze, and interpret literature and to write in response to that literature was a part of this and other whole language approaches she used throughout the course. These language arts strategies went along with several Illinois State goals for grade 8:
Ted Injasulian at The Robert Abbott Middle School, again in the humanities area, did another problem-based learning approach, for Fine and Applied Arts and Sciences in Waukegan Illinois. In the unit students developed a proposal for an original sculpture for a specific environment within the city of Waukeegan. A local area artist collaborated with students on the project, acted as a role model, mentor and consultant (McCombs).
The subject areas that were incorporated in the project were a) mathematics for measurement and cost projections, b) history for the study of past and present sculptures constructed in the area, c) science for geology of the proposed site and the effects of the weather, and d) language arts for the writing and communication skills needed for proposal development and presentation. Students also worked with various technologies such as camcorders, computer cameras, scanners, specialized software for the design of artwork, and digitized automation for presentation purposes. Upon completion of the project the students, artist, principal, and art teacher made their proposal to city council for acceptance or rejection (McCombs).
The flow of the project moved from general to specific – from an understanding of the whole before executing the parts. 1) In the beginning the teacher showed a video that demonstrated the whole design and proposal process. The video consisted of an interview with an actual artist describing the design and proposal process as well as examples of several public sculptures in the area. 2) Students then gained the necessary background information by going into small groups and engaging in small group discussions, research, and exploration of principles of sculpture, tools involved, the value of the project, art history and dilemmas they will face. 3) Each group was given tools, software, and an environment to create their own sculpture and do a video presentation. 4) Each group showed their video while the others provided constructive criticism. 5) Students showed their revised videos to their peers and one group was selected to represent the class.
“How do we make a proposal for a public sculpture?” is definitely a semester long unit. It is estimated that it will take 10 to 20 days for students to complete any one of the following tasks: becoming familiar with the software; conducting the research; developing the sculpture in an environment on the computer in three dimensions; compiling information in a rough draft including music, speech and film and then presenting it to city council.
B) Relationship between research and theory and problem based learning.
There is plenty of relevant theory to support problem-based learning as a teaching strategy. Among the wealth of theoretical work a sufficient body was covered in class. One theory that supports problem-based learning is Sternberg and Hartman’s BACEIS model of improving thinking.
The BACEIS model is a framework of factors that are internal and external to the student that affect a student’s academic performance (Sternberg/Hartman). The factors that are external to a student are academic and nom-academic environments; factors that are internal are affect and cognition. The BACEIS acronym stand for b= behavior, a= affect, c=cognition, e=environment, I= interacting, s= systems (Hartman).
The BACEIS model specifically interacts with pbl because it involves so many aspects of the model. It is an affective approach because the assignment carries with it real life consequences, while at the same time engaging the student cognitively and metacognitively (Hartman). As the student goes on in the project the metacognitive domain of thinking is active because the project is usually being done for the first time so the framework of the project is not concrete. This forces the student to be engaged metacognitively because the teacher is sometimes an equal in the assignment and serves as somewhat of a peer administrator.
The academic and non-academic environments mentioned in the BACEIS model come in contact with each other in pbl. The combination of these factors and all of their reciprocal influences has implications on how, how much and how successful students are when engaged in academic work.
A strong association between problem-based learning and theory can be seen in its relation to cognitive theories. Cognitive theorists believe that learning and development occur through the interaction of the learner to the environment (Hartman). They focus on the mind’s role in learning, meaningfulness of what is learned, and active involvement in the learning process (Hartman). Some important mental activities in learning are: acquisition, comprehension, retention and transfer of what is learned. There are three major types of cognitive theories: constructivist, information processing and social interaction.
Constructivism’s basic tenet is that we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. We search for tools to help us understand the world we live in, and people make sense of the world by synthesizing new experiences with their old (Hartman). Constructivist teachers help their students construct new understandings (Hartman). Constructivist educational settings are very problem-based in that they focus on large ideas instead of dreary, fact driven curricula. They help students follow interests by having an array of avenues within the pbl framework. It also conveys the message of the complexity of the world, provides multiple perspectives, and the projects show students that in real life settings truth is often a matter of interpretation. The constructivist setting is often messy, elusive & not easily managed. And it encourages students to think and explore (Hartman). All of these ideas support a strong synthesis between constructivism and problem-based learning.
In Piagetian terms the human mind is a dynamic set of structures that help us make sense of what we perceive. These structures grow in intellectual complexity as we mature and interact with the world we come to know and as we gain experience. Piaget viewed constructivism as a way of explaining how people come to know about their world (Hartman). When a child’s idea of truth is challenged there results a conflict that eventually results in equilibrium.
Brooks & Brooks provide some guiding principles for a constructivist classroom that shows strong parallels to pbl. The teacher should pose problems of emerging relevance to students, structure learning around primary concepts, seek and value student’s points of view (Hartman). In a constructivist classroom there is high value for student questions, the students are viewed as thinkers with emerging theories about the world, teachers seek students’ point of view for use in future lessons. Assessment is interwoven with teaching and occurs through teacher observations of students at work and through student exhibitions and portfolios and students primarily work in groups (Hartman).
Problem-based learning is obviously a constructivist approach. As the students move through the project they construct their own understandings of the world they live in. When they run into challenges of their pre-existing notions they must readjust their understanding to reach a new equilibrium. The constructivist approach and pbl creates autonomy within the student, which in the end results in a self directed learner.
In Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence there are three different, but interdependent types of intelligence: analytical, creative and practical. Analytical intelligence is the type of intelligence that appears in school and is measured on IQ tests. Creative intelligence, which is more precious and rare according to Sternberg, involves solving problem using novel approaches. And the last form of intelligence is practical or “street smarts”. This involves knowing how to get around in your environment. Each of these types of intelligence can help propel a problem-based learning project (Hartman).
When students work alone they are surrounded by their own weaknesses and strengths and the outcomes are limited. In pbl students work together in small groups to work toward a common outcome, where one student lacks strength the other may be more than sufficient and the assignment achieves a higher level of quality. By using a communal intelligence the classroom becomes more like a real world environment and will eventually strengthen healthy virtues like sharing and teamwork, instead of more traditional classroom ethics like competition.
Within the analytical intelligence framework there is a metacomponent, performance component, and knowledge acquisition component (Hartman). In the metacomponent of analytical intelligence students are thinking about the planning. This thinking drives rest of intelligent behavior, they can be looked at to make intelligent decisions about the flow of the project. The performance component perform the actual work that directed by the metacognitive bosses (Hartman). And the knowledge acquisition component or learning to learn skills is the last faction comprising analytical intelligence. In learning to learn there are three skills; the first is separating relevant from irrelevant facts. The next is comparing what is to be learned with what is already learned. And the last is combining old knowledge with new to create a brand new synthesis (Hartman).
The analytical thinker is a welcome addition to the problem-based learning project. One strength they have is strong planning skills, which is crucial to pbl since so much of it is uncharted territory. The performance component is obviously needed because that is metacognition being actualized within the framework of real life. There also needs to be students on the assignment that have the ability to combine old knowledge and new knowledge to create an original synthesis.
Another wing in the triarchic model is creative intelligence. There are two major characteristics of this aspect of intelligence: the ability to deal with effectively with novelty in tasks or situations, and performing tasks with automaticity (Hartman). Creative intelligence intelligence excels in the way it puts together two disparate pieces of information. Creative intelligence’s role in pbl projects should be to synthesize seemingly unusable knowledge to the project and novel ways to get around roadblocks along the way.
The final wing of intelligence in Sternbergs’ triarchic theory of intelligence is practical intelligence or the ability to get by successfully in one’s environment.. The three strategies for successfully negotiating ones environment are: adapting to it, selecting, and shaping to fit one’s needs. The practically intelligent student’s role in pbl should be as mediator between the outside environment and the world of the project. The three strengths of the practically intelligent student work well with pbl. They are: managing yourself, managing tasks and cooperating with others.
On the outside problem based learning appears to be the solution to all of our academic ills. It is a collective, collaborative environment in which students work together to reach a common goal. It uses the resources of each individual student and leaves no one out. The students come in contact with the working world that is outside of the confines of the classroom. Not only are students learning as they go along but many times they are helping to solve an actual problem that exists in the community.
Aside from an internship, with a private company in college, (which isn’t really pbl), I never did anything problem-based. I can see that maybe in the scientific courses or social sciences there would be more of a focus on problem-based learning in college. In High School I also never had a problem-based task. I do think that it is a good idea in High School so kids can get an idea of how well they work in a group, so they can see if they are a team player or prefer to work alone. They also get to find out what the working world is like and if anything strikes them as interesting they will have a stronger idea of what they want to pursue before they reach college. The most important advantage is that it provides a refreshing break from the usual academic monotony.
One disadvantages of pbl is that it is unpredictable. This is magnified by the fact that the projects take along time. There is a great risk that without the proper planning the kids will not learn what they needed to learn from the lesson and state curriculum will not be met. The projects also tend to be a little contrived at times which jeopardizes the full interest of the students.
Bransford, J., Brown, L., and Cocking, R., (2000) How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience & School. National Academy Press: Washington D.C.
McCombs, B., Mcneely,. S (!997), Real Life Problem Solving. American Psychological Association Washington D.C.
Boud, D., Feletti, G. (1991) The Challenge of Problem Based Learning. St. Martin’s Press New York N.Y
Hartman, H. Human Learning and Instruction 1997 City College of New York
Problem -based Learning, especially in the context of large classes, http://chemeng.mcmaster.ca/pbl/pbl.htm
Problem based learning: introduction, learning outcomes and instructional objectives, http://www.rcc.ryerson.ca/learnontario/idnm/mod2/mod2-5/mod2-51.htm
Problem based learning; learning; medical education; medical students; BMJ: British Medical Journal, 1/19/2002 Vol.324 Issue 7330 p 153, 4p